Chronica

La politique de la France au Proche-Orient aux 19e et 20e siècles

Péter Ákos Ferwagner — 2025-12-20

France’s policy towards the Middle East, like that of other great powers, has been shaped and influenced by different factors in different historical periods. In the Middle Ages, long-distance trade became particularly important, and later the role of protector over the Eastern Christian denominations came to the fore, while maintaining the importance of the exchange of goods. In the modern era, Paris established closer relations with the Ottoman Empire than any other great power, and until the First World War, its policy in the region was characterised by the defence of the Empire’s territorial integrity. In the period between the two world wars, France concentrated mainly on its mandates in Syria and Lebanon, and when it was squeezed out of these, it became a supporter of the State of Israel. France’s role in the 1956 Suez crisis caused it to lose almost all of its influence in the region, which was somewhat restored under de Gaulle’s presidency. French governments in the last decades of the 20th century were characterised by a relatively balanced Middle East policy.

Clandestine Marriage in Late Medieval England (13th–15th centuries)

Enikő Gephárt — 2025-12-20

During the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), the Church established that the prerequisite for entering into a lawful marriage is the proclamation of the banns at least three weeks prior to the wedding, as well as its solemnization in the presence of a priest and witnesses. At the same time, the council stated that all marriages contracted without observing these rules, although valid, could still be subject to ecclesiastical sanctions. The concept of clandestine marriage thus basically applied to cases where the marriage was not preceded by a three-week period of announcement. In England, from the 13th century onwards, matters relating to clandestine marriages fell within the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts. However, according to court records, in practice, a marriage was not classified as clandestine solely on the basis of the lack of banns. This raises the question of whether it is still appropriate to use the term ”clandestine marriage” or whether it would be more useful to use the term ”informal marriage” in research.

General Overview of the 13th Century’s European Political Structure until the Mongol Invasion

Ilker Gürer — 2025-12-20

This work examines the political situation of Europe in the thirteenth century. The political struggle between the Papacy, the Holy Roman Empire, the Hungarian Kingdom, the Kingdom of Bohemia, and the Polish Kingdom at the beginning of the thirteenth century, until the Mongol Invasion of Europe. The primary reason for investigating these states is that they played a vital role in European history, particularly during the Mongol Invasion of Europe. The Hungarian, Bohemian, and Polish Kingdoms were mainly affected by the invaders from economic and political perspectives. Meanwhile, the article will try to show the milestones of the Fifth Crusade as preparation and aftermath to explain how it affected the relationship between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. It also tries to clarify why this power struggle became an essential factor for the future of Europe during the Mongol Invasion.

Thinking about Poverty and Wealth in the Early Hungarian Narrative Sources

Miklós Halmágyi — 2025-12-20

How were poor persons and beggars considered in the medieval Hungarian narrative sources? Were beggars viewed only as pitiful individuals, or were some of them also considered “bad poor”? How did wealthy people try to help the poor? Are there any examples that they wanted to change the living conditions of the poor, in addition to distributing alms? This study seeks answers based on narrative texts and laws from medieval sources related to Hungary.

The Representation and Its Possible Transformations in the Cemeteries of the Tisza–Maros–Körös Region during the Second Half of the Avar Period

Kristóf Hergott — 2025-12-20

The region of Tisza–Maros–Körös is one of the best-studied areas of the Avar Khaganate. This paper aims to trace social changes within its communities through the analysis of grave goods and transformations in mortuary practice, with particular attention to the similarities and differences in the deposition of decorated belts. The chronological framework is based on belt-sets from the Szentes–Nagyhegy cemetery, where five phases can be correlated with other cemeteries in the region. This allows for a phase-by-phase examination of changes in the practice of depositing decorated belts, as well as related aspects of burial customs. The inclusion of belts, weapons, and horses in graves may indicate the social status of the deceased.

The Syntax of Chapter 84 of the lex Irnitana and the Jurisdictional Limit of the Local Magistrates

Imre Áron Illés — 2025-12-20

The lex Irnitana, found in 1981 and first published in 1986, contains a detailed description of the local jurisdiction of Roman municipia, thus it is of outstanding importance not only for provincial cities but also for the procedural law of Rome itself. Certain aspects of the regulation, however, raise questions. In the present study I examine the upper limit of local jurisdiction as described in the charter: according to the traditional interpretation, the upper limit of 1,000 sestertii could be overpassed if the parties agreed, whereas more recently (Wolf, Torrent) the view has emerged that the 1,000 sestertii constituted an absolute maximum, which could not be exceeded even with the consent of the parties. In my opinion, the latter view is untenable not only from a legal and logical point of view, but also grammatically.

The Process of Monetisation in the Roman Economy and the Rise of Bankers

Brigitta Izing-Gombos — 2025-12-20

This study examines the monetisation of the Roman economy and the concurrent rise of private banking institutions between the 3rd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. The increasing circulation of coinage enabled the development of complex financial practices and institutions, including the emergence of private bankers. Drawing on legal texts, archaeological evidence, and ancient literary sources, the paper details the multifaceted roles bankers played—not only as moneylenders, but also as intermediaries in trade, credit facilitators, and key actors in maritime finance. It highlights the economic impact of banking networks in major port cities like Puteoli and Ostia, while acknowledging their limited scale compared to elite financiers. Despite the social stigma associated with usury, bankers were vital to the functioning of Rome’s commercial and fiscal systems.

Svatopluk’s Moravia in the Medieval Hungarian tradition

Péter Juhász — 2025-12-20

This article analyzes the memory of Svatopluk’s Moravia in medieval Hungarian tradition. It has been preserved that Svatopluk was the main enemy of the conquering Hungarians, and it was from him that they conquered their new homeland. According to this, the Tisza region was under Moravian rule, similar to the claim of Aventinus, who compiled his historical work from contemporary sources. It also turns out that Moesia was under Moravian rule, which agrees well with contemporary sources, that mention a country in the valley of the South Morava (Margus) river as Moravia (Sclavi Margenses/Marahenses) in the ancient Moesia, modern northern Serbia.

Narratives on the Wandering of the Nomadic Hungarians

Bálint Kerényi — 2025-12-20

In modern Hungarian archaeological research it is stated as a fact that pre-conquest Hungarians did not live in the southern parts of the European steppe before the ninth century, although from the references given in the literature it seems obvious that a significant part of Russian authors represent the view that Ugric-speaking people took part in the Hunnic and Oguric migrations from Western Siberia to Europe in the fourth and fifth centuries AD. Since the Hungarian language belongs to the Ugric branch, the view of certain Russian authors is particularly important for Hungarian scholarship. This theory was formulated first by M. I. Artamonov in 1962, who was a contemporary of Gyula Németh, who in his well-known monograph – A honfoglaló magyarság kialakulása/The formation of the conquering Hungarians, 1930 – assumed that Hungarians arrived in Europe as part of the Onogur and Ogur migration from Western Siberia. Do the results of modern archaeology contradict such a narrative, or is it possible that the narrative of Gyula Németh and others is still a valid and relevant theory in the reconstruction of Hungarian origin and early Hungarian history?

Religious Commitment and Alienation as Expression of Identity

Erzsébet Mislovics — 2025-12-20

The aim of the study was to show how families respond to religious challenges and express Jewish identity. Similar patterns emerged in two families, the Munk and Goldzieher, which were studied in case studies, showing different reactions to modernization. There were those who clung to tradition, those who supported religious reform, and those who distanced themselves from religion. The case study of both families highlighted that the reactions to modernization are similarly heterogeneous. Responses to these challenges show that, while the environment and religious communities do influence choices, it is ultimately up to individual choices. This contrasted sharply with the situation in the early nineteenth-century, when religious communities largely controlled individual decision-making.

Public Safety and Administration of Justice in Ottoman-ruled Mezőtúr

Erika Öner — 2025-12-20

This study examines the administration of justice and public security in the market town of Mezőtúr during Ottoman rule in Hungary. That period not only brought about the disappearance of the unified Kingdom of Hungary, but also significantly hindered the formation of a national market and obstructed Hungary’s political, legal, administrative, and social development. The occupied region, which at times functioned almost as an autonomous territory, faced a complex legal situation, in addition to the burden of double taxation. A market town could even obtain the right of the sword (jus gladii) from the Ottomans, which at once served the self-defense of the locals and the financial enrichment of the Ottomans. This period raises many questions that remain to be explored, since few have thoroughly examined how the villages and market towns under Ottoman rule lived their everyday lives, and how they were affected by the weakening of Turkish military and administrative power in the 17th century. This short study illustrates this phenomenon through the case of Mezőtúr during the Ottoman occupation.

Woman in Aviation

Tamara Szalkai — 2025-12-20

Flying in ”heavier-than-air vehicles” has been possible since 1903, when the Wright brothers first flew. The pilots were usually men, and their number in this field is still outstanding today. However as early as 1910, the press reported about women who had learned to fly. The first woman was Lilly Steinschneider who held pilot’s licence No. 4 in Austria–Hungary. Jolán V. Tóth was the second lady to make a name for herself in aviation. She obtained her pilot’s licence No. 449 in the Kingdom of Hungary in 1928. The main topic of the study is the lives of the first and second female pilots in Hungary and their connection to aviation. My main research focuses on their appearance in the press: the events they were reported on, and the way they were portrayed at the time and later. The main question of the study is which of them can be called the first Hungarian female pilot and why? In fact, due to their life situations and environments, both of them could be considered the first.

In the 1553 English Voyage to Muscovy and the Origins of the Muscovy Copany

Gergő Tóth — 2025-12-20

This study examines the first English voyage to Muscovy in 1553, led by Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor, within the broader context of mid-sixteenth-century English expansion. While the expedition failed to discover a north-eastern passage to Asia, it succeeded in establishing direct diplomatic and commercial contacts with Ivan IV’s court. The voyage also laid the foundation for the Muscovy Company, the first English joint-stock trading company, which became a model for later overseas enterprises. The article explores the motivations, events, and outcomes of the expedition, and its significance for Anglo-Russian relations.

A Comparative Study on the Genesis of Cossacks in Ukraine and the Hajduks in Hungary

Beáta Varga — 2025-12-20

The Cossacks of Ukraine and the Hajduks of Hungary, as a new social and political factor, had evolved equally in the second half of the 15th century and they became a considerable factor in society only at the end of the 16th century. Comparing the origins of Hajduks and Cossacks doing military service, it can be stated that they can by no means be considered as a homogeneous group in society, yet from the beginning they came into being as a differentiated and ”intermediate” social category. Both the name of Hajduks and the Cossacks can be traced back to a foreign origin. Initially, the denominations of the Cossacks and Hajduks were not applied for a specific ethnic minority, but for the designation of a specific profession and lifestyle.

Is the Census in Independent Ukraine a Political Project?

Nadiia Yefymyshch — 2025-12-20

This article examines the state’s desire to control the lives of its population by using statistics and the census, particularly to legitimize the regime as the embodiment of political democracy, social justice, and cultural tradition.
The process and results of the Ukrainian census became instruments in the struggle to legitimize the power of various political groups after the collapse of the USSR, when significant changes in identity and migration occurred. The census results acquired significant sociopolitical significance, both at the political and governmental levels.
This article analyzes the census results of the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine and the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology. Key factors included indicators of the ethnic composition of the population, language preferences, and the regional distribution of national minorities.
The Ukrainian census had exclusively political significance, as it allowed for ”the construction of the image of the nation and the state, and the correction of harsh realities through census categories and manipulations.”