Studies of Oxford Stone as a Contribution to Environmental Geomorphology
Main Article Content
Abstract
Much scientific research has been conducted on Oxford stone, of which the historical buildings of central Oxford, UK are comprised. This paper reviews all published literature to-date specifically for Oxford stone, compiling an inventory of studies. The context for this review is in the application of environmental geomorphology to the more recent studies by physical geographers. Overall findings across published studies assist with an understanding of current trends in the conservation of Oxford’s historical buildings. Early observations remain generally representative of the findings, although the more recent literature has employed modern methodologies in science and technology that were not available in the late 1940s. Some indication of remaining research gaps are identified and forthcoming research presented. Last is a discussion of current practice in the cleaning and replacement of building stone that briefly considers the authenticity of Oxford stone, which is relevant for heritage conservation. The contribution of such studies to environmental geomorphology is addressed.
Downloads
Article Details
x
References
Arkell, W.J. 1947. Oxford stone. London: Faber and Faber Limited
Boori, M.S., Amaro, V.E. 2010. Detecting and understanding drivers of natural and eco-environmental vulnerability due to hydro geophysical parameters, ecosystem and land use change through multispectral satellite data sets in Apodi estuarine, Northeast Brazil. International Journa lof Environmental Sciences 1 (4), 543-557.
Boori, M.S., Amaro, V.E. 2011. A remote sensing approach for vulnerability and environmental change in Apodi Valley region, Northeast Brazil. World Academy of Science,Engineering and Technology 50, 501-511.
Briggs, D.J. 1981. The principles and practice of applied geography. Applied Geography 1 (1), 1-8.
Carter, N.E.A. 2002. Bioprotection explored: Lichens on limestone. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Oxford: School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford
Carter, N.E.A.,Viles H.A. 2003. Experimental investigations into the interactions between moisture, rock surface temperatures and an epilithic lichen cover in the bioprotection of lichen. Building and Environment 38, 1225-1234.
Coates, D.R. (ed.) 1971. Environmental geomorphology. Binghamton: State University of New York
Coates, D.R. (ed.) 1972. Environmental geomorphology and landscape conservation. Stroudsburg: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross
Coates, D.R. 1982. Environmental geomorphology perspectives. In: Applied geography: Selected perspectives. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 139-169.
Coates, D.R. 1990. Perspectives of environmental geomorphology. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Supplementband 79, 83 -117.
De Barros Goes, M.H. 1988. Environmental impact and risk areas related to the urbanisation process in the Baixada de Sepetiba, Rio do Janeiro. Boletim de Geografia Teoretica 18 (35-36), 39-73.
Deng, M. 1986. Preliminary study of geomorphology and territorial readjustment. Natural Sciences Journal of Hunan Normal University 9 (2), 77-82.
Dury, G.H. 1972. Some current trends in geomorphology. Earth-Science Reviews 8 (1), 45-72.
Dury, G.H. 1975. Book reviews: The environment. Earth-Science Reviews 11 (4), 365-366.
Enters, D., Dörfler, W., Zolitschka, B. 2008. Historical soil erosion and land-use change during the last two millenia recorded in lake sediments of Frickenhauser See, northern Bavaria, central Germany. Holocene 18 (2), 243-254.
Fisher, J.J. 1984. Regional long-term and localized short-term coastal environmental geomorphology inventories. In: Costa, J.E., Fleischer, P.J. (eds.) Developments and applications of geomorphology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 68-96.
Garcia, C.M. Carrijo, B.R., Sessegolo, G., Passos, E. 2012. Environmental assessment of the area surrounding Dam Rio Verde-Parana / Brazil. An overview of environmental geomorphology. Journal of Environmental Biology 33 (Suppl. 2), 289-291.
Gomez-Heras, M., Smith, B.J., Viles, H.A. 2010. Oxford stone revisited: Causes and consequences of diversity in building limestone used in the historic centre of Oxford, England. Geological Society Special Publication 333, 101-110.
Goudie, A.S., Viles, H.A. 1997. Salt weathering hazards. Oxford: Wiley
Gregory, K.J. 1974. Geomorphology. Earth-Science Reviews 10 (3), 228-229.
Holdway, S.J., Fanning P.C. 2010. Geoarchaeology in Australia: Understanding human-environment interactions. Geological Society Special Publication 346 (1), 71-85.
Huber-Sannwald, E., Maestre, F.T., Herrick, J.E., Reynolds J.F. 2006. Ecohydrological feedbacks and linkages associated with land degradation: A case study from Mexico. Hydrological Processes 20 (15), 3395-3411.
Inkpen, R.J., Fontana, D., Collier, P. 2001. Mapping decay: Integrating scales of weathering within a GIS. EarthSurface Processes and Landforms 26 (8), 885-900.
Inkpen, R., Duane, B., Burdett, J., Yates, T. 2008. Assessing stone degradation using an integrated database and geographical information system (GIS). EnvironmentalGeology 56 (3-4), 789-801.
Ivan, A. 1993. Relief of the landscape as part of the environment and its man induced disturbances. SbornikCeske Geograficke Spolecnosti 98 (3), 179-189.
Jacobs, P. 1977. Environmental geomorphology and landscape conservation. Urban Ecology 2 (3), 286-288.
Latocha, A. 2007. Human impact on the environmental changes in the Eastern Sudetes. Acta UniversitatisWratislaviensis, Studia Geograficzne 80, 1-215.
Latocha, A. 2009. Land-use changes and longer-term humanenvironment interactions in a mountain region (Sudetes Mountains, Poland). Geomorphology 108 (1-2), 48-57.
Li, B., Ge, Q., Zheng, J. 2003. Evolution of the Inner-Mongolia reach of the Yellow River and its response to the environment in the past 2000 years. Proceedings of SPIE- The International Society for Optical Engineering 4890 (2), 604 -611.
Mahaney, W.C. 2012. Extreme heating events and effects in the natural environment: Implications for environmental geomorphology. Geomorphology 139-140, 348-359.
Martín Duque, J.F., Pedrazaa, J., Díez, A.,Sanza, M.A., Carrasco, R.M. 1998. A geomorphological design for the rehabilitation of an abandoned sand quarry in central Spain. Landscape and Urban Planning 42 (1), 1-14.
Ofomata, G.E.K. 1974. Non urban landscape. LandscapePlanning 1, 378-380.
Ojany, F.F. 1986. Tana River delta and other deltaic rivers in Kenya; a contribution in fluvial and environmental geomorphology. In: Kadomura, H. (ed.) Geomorphology and environmental changes in tropical Africa. Sapporo: Hokkaido University, Graduate School of Environmental Science, 165-178.
Ozainne, S., Lespez, L., Drezen, Y.L., Eichhorn B., Neumann K., Huysecom E. 2009. Developing a chronology integrating archaeological and environmental data from different contexts: The late Holocene sequence of Ounjougou (Mali). Radiocarbon 51 (2), 457-470.10.1017/S0033822200055855
Panizza, M. 1996. Environmental geomorphology. In: Panizza M. (ed.) Environmental geomorphology. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Pécsi, M. 1985. Environmental geomorphology in Hungary. In: Pécsi, M. (ed.) Environmental and dynamic geomorphology: Case studies in Hungary. Contribution to the First International Geomorphology Conference, September 1985, Manchester, UK. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 3-15.
Pécsi, M. 1986. Environmental geomorphology in Hungary. In: Pécsi, M., Lóczy, D. (eds.) Physical geography and geomorphology in Hungary. Budapest: Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Geographical Research Institute, 117-122.
Pécsi, M. 1993. Environmental geomorphology in Hungary. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Supplementband 87, 1-11.
Prasad, G. 2008. Environmental geomorphology. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House PVT. Ltd.
Prasad, G., Sundriyal, R.R., Verma, V.K. 1984. Studies in environmental geomorpholgoy of Dudhatoli Ridge, Garhawal, Himalaya, India. IGARSS ’84. Remote sensing - From research towards operational use. Paris: European Space Agency, Scientific and Technical Publications Branch, 289-294.
Rapp, G., Jing, Z. 2011. Human-environmental interactions in the development of early Chinese civilization. GeologicalSociety Special Publication 352, 125-136.
Sass, O., Viles, H.A. 2010a. Two-dimensional resistivity surveys of the moisture content of historic limestone walls in Oxford, UK: Implications for understanding catastrophic stone deterioration. Geological SocietySpecial Publication 331, 237-249.
Sass, O., Viles, H.A. 2010b. Wetting and drying of masonry walls: 2D-resistivity monitoring of driving rain experiments on historic stonework in Oxford, UK. Journal of Applied Geophysics 70 (1), 72-83.
Smith, B.J., Viles, H.A. 2006. Rapid, catastrophic decay of building limestones: Thoughts on causes, effects and consequences. In: Fort, R., Álvarez de Buergo M., Gómez-Heras, M.,Vázquez-Calvo C. (eds.) Proceedings of the international conference on heritage, weathering and conservation, 21-24 June 2006, Madrid. London: A.A. Balkema Publishers, 191-197.
Sternberg, T., Viles, H., Cathersides, A., Edwards M. 2010. Dust particulate absorption by ivy (Hedera helix L) on historic walls in urban environments. Science of the TotalEnvironment 409, 162-168.
Sternberg, T., Viles, H., Cathersides, A. 2011. Evaluating the role of ivy (Hedera helix) in moderating wall surface microclimates and contributing to the bioprotection of historic buildings. Building and Environment 46, 293-297.10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.07.017
Sun, T., Grattan, K.T.V., Smith, B.J.,Srinivasan, S., Basheer, P.A.M., Viles, H.A. 2010. Optical fibre humidity sensor design for building stone condition monitoring. Proceedings of the IEEE Sensors, 1135-1139.
Thornbush, M.J. 2008a. Grayscale calibration of outdoor photographic surveys of historical stone walls in Oxford, England. Color Research and Application 33 (1), 148-154.
Thornbush, M. 2008b. Postcards used to track environmental history. Environmental History 13 (2), 360-365.
Thornbush, M.J. 2010a. Measurements of soiling and colour change using outdoor rephotography and image processing in Adobe Photoshop along the southern façade of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. In: Smith, B.J., Gomez-Heras, M., Viles, H.A., Cassar, J. (eds.) Limestone in the built environment: present-day challenges for the preservation of the past. London: Geological Society Special Publication 331, 231-236.
Thornbush, M.J. 2010b. Photographic surveys of building exteriors in central Oxford, UK. International Journal of Architectural Heritage 4 (4), 351-369.
Thornbush, M.J. 2012a. Tracking the use of climbing plants in the urban landscape through the photoarchives of two Oxford colleges, Landscape Research, 1861-1964.
Thornbush, M.J. 2012b. Developing a weathering scale for limestone walls in central Oxford, UK. Geosciences 2, 277-297.
Thornbush, M.J. 2012c. Archaeogeomorphology as an application in physical geography. Applied Geography 34, 325-330.
Thornbush, M.J. in press a. Photogeomorphological studies of Oxford stone - A review. Landform Analysis Thornbush, M.J. in press b. Digital photography used to quantify the greening of north-facing walls along Broad Street in central Oxford, UK. Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement Thornbush, M.J., in press c. The use of climbing plants in heritage bioconservation. In: Horizons in Earth Science Research, Volume 10. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers Thornbush, M.J., Thornbush, S.E., in press a. The application of a limestone weathering index at churchyards in central Oxford, UK. Applied Geography
Thornbush, M.J., Thornbush, S.E., in press b. Photographs across time. Sharjah, U.A.E.: Bentham Science Publishers
Thornbush, M., Viles, H. 2004a. Integrated digital photography and image processing for the quantification of colouration on soiled surfaces in Oxford, England. Journal of Cultural Heritage 5 (3), 285-290.
Thornbush, M.J., Viles, H.A. 2004b. Surface soiling pattern detected by integrated digital photography and image processing of exposed limestone in Oxford, England. In: Saiz-Jimenez, C. (ed.) Air pollution and cultural heritage. London: A.A. Balkema Publishers, 221-224.
Thornbush, M., Viles, H. 2005. The changing façade of Magdalen College, Oxford: Reconstructing long-term soiling patterns from archival photographs and traffic records. Journal of Architectural Conservation 11 (2), 40-57.
Thornbush, M., Viles. H. 2006a. Changing patterns of soiling and microbial growth on building stone in Oxford, England after implementation of a major traffic scheme. Science of the Total Environment 367 (1), 203-211.
Thornbush, M.J., Viles, H.A. 2006b. Use of portable X-ray fluorescence for monitoring elemental concentrations in surface units on roadside stone at Worcester College, Oxford. In: Fort, R., Álvarez de Buergo, M., Gómez-Heras M., Vázquez-Calvo, C. (eds.) Proceedings of the international conference on heritage, weathering and conservation, 21-24 June 2006, Madrid. London: A.A. Balkema Publishers, 613-619.
Thornbush, M.J., Viles, H.A. 2007a. Photo-based decay mapping of replaced stone blocks on the boundary wall of Worcester College, Oxford. Geological Society Special Publication 271, 69-75.
Thornbush, M.J., Viles, H.A. 2007b. Simulation of the dissolution of weathered versus unweathered limestone in carbonic acid solutions of varying strength. EarthSurface Processes and Landforms 32 (6), 841-852.
Thornbush. M.J.. Viles. H.A. 2008. Photographic monitoring of soiling and decay of roadside walls in central Oxford, England. Environmental Geology 56 (3-4), 777-787.
Timofeev, D.A. 1991. Environmental geomorphology: Its subject, aims, and tasks. Geomorfologiya 1, 43-48.
Verstappen, H.Th. 1983. Applied geomorphology: Geomorphological surveys for environmental development. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Viles, H.A. 1993a. The environmental sensitivity of blistering of limestone walls in Oxford, England: A preliminary study. In: Thomas, D.S.G., Allison, R.J. (eds.) Landscape sensitivity. Chichester: Wiley, 309-326.
Viles, H.A. 1993b. Observations and explanations of stone decay in Oxford, UK. In: Thiel, M. J. (ed.) Conservation of stone and other materials: Causes of disorders and diagnosis. London: E. and F.N. Spon, 115-120.
Viles, H.A. 1994. Time and grime: Studies in the history of building stone decay in Oxford. Research Paper No. 50. Oxford: School of Geography, University of Oxford
Viles, H. 1996a. “Unswept stone, besmeer’d by sluttish time”: Air pollution and building stone decay in Oxford, 1790-1960. Environment and History 2 (3), 359-372.
Viles, H.A. 1996b. Monitoring the effects of the Oxford Transport Strategy on building stone decay and soiling. In: Riederer, J. (ed.) Proceedings of the 8th international congress on deterioration and conservation of stone, 30 September-4 October 1996, Berlin, 831-834.
Viles, H.A., Gorbushina, A.A. 2003. Soiling and microbial colonisation on urban roadside limestone: A three year study in Oxford, England. Building and Environment 38 (9-10), 217-1224.
Yesilnacar, M.U., Cetin, H. 2008. An environmental geomorphologic approach to site selection for hazardous wastes. Environmental Geology 55 (8), 1659-1671.