Studia Uralo-altaica

Auflösung eines ungarischen lautgeschichtlichen Rätsels U *pesä ’Nest’ > ungarisch fészëk ~ finnisch pesä

László Honti — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

On 'on' in Uralic and Ossetic: from adpositions to case suffixes

Sampsa Holopainen, Jussi Ylikoski — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

In comparison to Indo-European languages, the Uralic language family is quite famous for its rich case inventories, although the number of Proto-Indo-European cases is usually reconstructed slightly higher than that of Proto-Uralic. Most studies on the development of Uralic and Indo-European case systems have focused on the general trends within the two families: Uralicists have been largely occupied with trying to understand the rise of new cases, while Indo-Europeanists have been concerned about the reconstruction of ancient case systems and the causes and effects of their gradual loss. This paper takes an alternative stance to a small part of the phenomena in question and provides a diachronic and synchronic comparison of a semantically restricted set of secondary cases in Uralic and Indo-European by comparing the emergence of ‘on’ cases such as the so-called adessive or superessive cases in languages like Finnish and Karelian on one hand, and in Iron and Digor Ossetic on the other. While the formal similarity of the adessives like Livvi Karelian divanal ‘on a couch’ and Iron Ossetic диваныл [divanəl] id. is only accidental, a closer look at the similarities and differences of such forms as well as at their analogous origins in ancient adpositions makes it possible to identify a number of factors that have made these quite similar yet typologically less common cases emerge and develop to their present forms.

Рефлексы прасамодийских a и ä и нганасанский сингармонизм

Valentin Gusev — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The paper deals with the reflexes of Proto-Samoyedic *ä and *a in the first syllable. It shows that their reflexes in Nganasan correlate with the synharmonical class of the root: while in the former front-vowel roots *ä became e and *a became Ća or Cia, in the former back-vowel roots both have passed to Ca. This development is paralleled in Selkup, Kamas and Mator, while in Nenets and Enets both *ä and *a have each developed regardless of the synharmonical class.

К вопросу о ранних контактах между самодийскими языками

Kaisla Kaheinen — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The current article is concerned with the development of Proto-Samoyed *j in intervocalic position in Nganasan. In previous studies, intervocalic PS *j is said to disappear in Nganasan, leading into the formation of secondary vowel sequences in addition to the primary ones inherited from Proto-Samoyed. A more detailed inspection of certain Proto-Samoyed etymologies reveals that *j indeed disappears in intervocalic position unless it is either preceded or followed by a sequence of two vowels, in which case it is preserved and phonetically often strenghtened to d’. The implications of this change are further discussed in light of one particular etymology, that of PS *kåläjə̑ŋ ’mammoth / whale’, for which Nganasan has, in addition to the regular reflex kol’iiŋ ’whale’, several doublet reflexes that appear to be early borrowings from a neighbouring Samoyed language.

A history of Northern Samoyedic: adding details to the dialect continuum hypothesis

Olesya Khanina — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

A striking peculiarity in the historical development of Northern Samoyedic were the never-ending contacts between various groups and thus a dialect continuum spanning their languages. This paper aims at contributing to the solid establishment of this historical scenario by summarizing geographic evidence from the last 400 years, sociolinguistic evidence from the last 200 years, evidence from unpublished manuscripts based on Samoyedic linguistic data from the 18th and 19th centuries, and evidence from the history of reindeer herding in Western Siberia. Different types of data are integrated into a single history of Northern Samoyedic speakers, drawn here with more details than ever before.

Система послелогов со значением ‘рядом’, ‘в направлении’, ‘напротив’ в северносамодийских языках и в прасеверносамодийском

Anna Urmanchieva — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The paper concernes the formation in the Northern Samoyedic languages of a system of postpositions expressing the meaning of close proximity to a landmark or of movement towards a landmark / away from a landmark / along a landmark. In the Northern Samoyedic languages, this semantic sphere is quite detailed, distinguishing following meanings: A) ‘the action acciplishes near the landmark / starts in a place near the landmark / takes place near the landmark’ (e. g. near the house); B) ‘the action is directed towards the landmark / directed from the side of the landmark / takes place in the vicinity of the landmark’ (goes to the north; goes from the sea side). C) the action is performed in order to reach a landmark (goes to the house); D) the action implies a close contact between the object and the landmark; in this case the specific localization (‘inside’, ‘on the surface’, ‘on the side surface’) is not important (put it in the hand; wrote on the door); E) the action is performed, being localized in a certain way relative to a landmark (lies with feet to the door); F) the action is carried out strictly according to the course set by a landmark (follows the stars; points the knife at the pole); G) the action implies a “malefactive” contact of an object with a landmark (catched on the stone; cut his hand on the knife). These postpositions also developed a set of non-spatial uses: a) the formation of locative cases of personal pronouns; b) comitative meaning; c) the meaning of the equivalent ‘for the sake of something’, ‘in exchange for something’; d) the meaning of the topic (of messages, thoughts, etc.) ‘about something’. The paper reconstructs the development of the system of postpositions in each Northern Samoyedic language from Proto-Northern Samoyedic to the present state.

Syntax of multiple questions in Tundra Nenets

Nikolett Mus — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The paper discusses the relative order and syntactic position of wh-phrases in Tundra Nenets multiple wh-questions. Contrary to previous proposals, it will be argued that the wh-phrases in multiple wh-questions are rigidly ordered and their order is constrained by the Specificity Filter. Evidence on the application of the Specificity Filter comes from the ungrammaticality of certain relative orders, i.e. *how-any wh-phrase, and the answers that are given to the multiple wh-questions, i.e. the answer does not specify values for the first wh-phrase but it pairs X and Y in both cases. Thus, the first wh-phrase in the construction is interpreted as a distributive universal quantifier. This is supported by the fact that the first wh-phrase can trigger object agreement on verbs (that is otherwise not possible in the case of wh-objects). Additionally, the wh-sequence can be preceded by elements that normally cause Intervention effects in single wh-questions, but a focussed expression cannot precede them. So in Tundra Nenets multiple wh-questions at least the first wh-phrase undergoes movement and it supposedly appears in the topic position.

Nganasan language materials in space and time

Sándor Szeverényi, Beáta Wagner-Nagy — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The paper provides an overview of Nganasan fieldwork data and archive resources. This description focuses primarily on the textual and sound materials, but other aspects that contribute to the documentation of Nganasan are also touched on, whereas textbooks and dictionaries are not considered here. We give a detailed survey of the available published and unpublished material as well. We do not discuss in detail fieldwork materials only available in Russian, e.g. such as Dolgikh’s rich folklore collection. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 gives some information on Nganasan and related languages. Section 3 addresses the early field notes, i.e. the resources before Castrén’s trip and his materials. Section 4 exemplifies the fieldwork activities of the 20th century. After that, in Section 5 we turn to the digitally available materials. The description is then rounded off in Section 6 with the description of the planned Nganasan database. The basic idea of the database is to collect and archive material from fieldwork.

Nganasan loanword phonology

Marianne Bakró-Nagy — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The aim of the paper is to give an overview of the loanword adaptation strategies of word-initial complex consonant-cluster onsets of Russian loanwords in Nganasan. The approach is typological, and the strategies are considered in a broader typological framework as a secondary aim. It is proposed that deletion and distribution of epenthetic sites can be attributed to the acoustic properties of the segments, and it is noted that extra grammatical aspects may have a significant role in explaining the processes.

Типология переключения кодов на примере русско-финских и нганасанско-русских языковых контактов

Larisa Leisiö — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

Code switching typology completed in 1998 and partially revisited in 2013 (Auer 1998; 2013) is discussed and applied in the analysis of Russian speakers living in Finland and of Nganasan speakers living on the Taimyr Peninsula, Russian Federation. According to the code-switching typology, there are broadly seen three stages of codeswitching: code switching proper (I), code mixing (II) and mixed language (III). They form a one-directional continuum in language-contact situations, so that the direction from the first stage towards the third one cannot be reversed and, on the other hand, there is no clear boundary between the two consecutive stages. Both Finno-Russians and Nganasans use the other language in the interaction. Finno-Russians use Finnish in their Russian speech and Nganasans use Russian in their Nganasan-language interaction. All in all, language alternation of both groups varies between code-switching and code-mixing. Short and phono-morphologically integrated passages in the other language usually do not include interaction or narrative relevant meaning. Code-switched excerpts meaningful from the narrative or interaction viewpoint are longer and form the other-language islands. The status of the languages in society and the interaction type construct, respectively, macro- and micro-frameworks for language choice and the possibility of language alternation.

The concept ‘half’ in Selkup language

Ulrike Kahrs — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The theoretical frame of this article is the field of cognitive linguistics. The past decades have witnessed a progressive increase in writings on cognitive structures. A special focus is laid thereby on concepts, which are considered as mental organisational units reflecting the external world. With the help of concepts, humans organise their perceptions and experiences in order to be able to understand and act. This paper explores a concrete mental organisational unit – the concept ‘half’ – in Selkup language. In the last decades, some works were published concentrating on concepts in Selkup language and culture, like ‘space’ (Polyakova 2006). {PARAGRAPH} The concept ‘half’ is a fundamental cognitive organisational unit, based on dividing, partitioning and subdividing things, like splitting an apple, a fish or a log of wood, with a knife or an axe in two halves. The examined material consists of four words with the meaning ‘half’, extracted from various dictionaries, and approximately 35 sentences, extracted from two Selkup language corpora, in which these words are used. Due to the semantic connotations and the utilization of the word in certain contexts I propose six conceptual domains (division of things into two halves, transversal/horizontal division of things into two halves, longitudinal division of things into two halves, division of locations into two halves, division of time into two halves and division of paired entities), which are analysed in regard of their lexical representation. The paper has the following structure: after a brief introduction, the material and method are presented. The main section deals with the analysis of the six conceptual domains. At the end of each domain, I will analyse the linguistic representation and the main features of the objects belonging to this sphere. The findings are summarized in the final section. The analysis of the concept ‘half’ in Selkup shows that this mental unit of organisation has a complex structure. Some domains are represented linguistically homogenous (e.g. division of things into two halves and division of paired entities), whereas other domains are expressed linguistically by more than one word (e.g. division of location or time in two halves). Sometimes this incoherent linguistic representation is caused by dialect differences or the fact that all word meaning ‘half’ in Selkup are polysemous and the different meanings might eventually interfere.

Syntax and semantics of the Selkup noun phrase

Chris Lasse Däbritz, Josefina Budzisch — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The paper at hand aims at describing the basic patterns of syntax and semantics of noun phrases in Selkup; all four dialect groups of Selkup (Northern, Central, Southern and Ket) are taken into account for the description of NPs but it can be shown that they do not differ regarding the structure of noun phrases. The approach is corpus based, the data in use stems from two corpora: INEL Selkup corpus (Brykina et al. 2020) and the SLE corpus (Budzisch et al. 2019), together they consist of 404 texts with 16,741 sentences and 94,553 tokens. Noun phrases can be bare or modified in Selkup; in the latter case no agreement of modifier and head noun is observed in any case. The modifiers occurring in Selkup are adjectives, numerals and quantifiers, demonstratives, possessors as well as participles forming relative clauses. Generally, it can be said that noun phrases in Selkup are structured as expected in an articless SOV language, namely exhibiting no agreement and being head-final. There is one seeming exception, namely the universal quantifiers muntɨk ‘all; whole’ and wes’ ‘all; whole’, which can be placed after the noun they modify.

Ударение в камасинском и его ареальные параллели

Julia V. Normanskaya — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The article is devoted to the analysis of the Kamasian stress. It analyzes the corpus of audio recordings by Klaudia Plotnikova. This corpus was created as part of the work of the Institute of Finno-Ugric Studies in Hamburg, which was headed by E. A. Helimski from 1997 to 2007. It has been compared with data from multiple sources, including the Kamasian dictionary from the archive of A.M. Sjögren, which was based on G. F. Miller's Samoyed dictionaries collected during expeditions of the first half of the XVIII century; archival materials on the Kamasian language recorded by M. A. Castrén in the first half of the XIX century, and the Kamasian dictionary by K. Donner, the material for which was collected in the first half of the XX century. Summing up the results of the analysis, it can be established that in the audio recordings of Klaudia Plotnikova, the place of stress depends on the Kamassian vowels of the first and second syllables. The following rule can be proposed:

— stress falls on the first syllable if it contains Kamasian vowels a, e, o, ö and the vowel of the second syllable is ǝ, i, or u;

— stress does not fall on the first syllable in all other cases.

It turned out that this rule fully corresponds to the position in which long vowels appear in the Khakas language, whose speakers assimilated the Kamasians.

Kamas bāzoʔ ‘again’

Gerson Klumpp — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

This article is an attempt to capture the functional profile of the Kamas repetitive adverb bazoʔ, which occurs with the four different meanings ‘again’, ‘in addition’, ‘in turn’, and ‘back again’. The adverb is a borrowing from South Siberian Turkic. It is attested across all documented periods of Kamas. In the latest period, the profile of the adverb changes at least in two domains. First, in repeated events with a differing given argument, the adverb finds a competitor in the Russian borrowing tože ‘also’. Second, while a repetitive-restitutive meaning is attested already in earlier texts, in late Kamas, bazoʔ appears also in counterdirectional meaning, which had been expressed earlier by the spatial adverb püʔdə ‘back’. For the present investigation all ca. 200 instances of bazoʔ in the older and younger Kamas texts have been considered. In addition to bazoʔ and tože, attention is also paid to another additive operator of Russian origin, iššo ‘still, more’.

Чередования гласных в именных и глагольных основах в сургутском диалекте хантыйского языка

Natalia B. Koshkareva — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

This paper discusses the vowel alternation in verbal stems of the Surgut dialect of Khanty in comparison with the alternation in nouns. The low vowels in verbal stems alternate with the high vowels of the corresponding row. Mid long vowels in both nominal and verbal stems demonstrate an irregular alternation: they either do not alternate at all, like high vowels, or alternate like low vowels. Three types of alternations are revealed: three different long vowels are represented in the forms of the present, past and imperative: for example, the long back low rounded vowel [o] alternates in the past tense with [u], and in the imperative mood ‒ with [y]. Other vowels form alternating pairs, which are distributed differently in different verb forms. Two different long vowels are used in the forms of the present tense, on the one hand, and in the forms of the past tense and imperative mood, on the other hand. In the stems with short vowels, the forms of the present and past tense of the indicative are opposed to the forms of the imperative. Unlike nouns, where only long vowels are allowed to alternate, in verbs short vowels also participate in the alternation. Long vowels alternate with long ones, and short vowels alternate with short ones.

Cognate maximization versus cognate minimization

George Starostin — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The paper presents a brief evaluation of the current state of affairs in the field of comparative Altaic linguistics, claiming that the relative lack of progress over the past 15 years is largely due to the conflicting opposing strategies of "cognate maximization" and "cognate minimization", respectively adopted by proponents and opponents of the hypothesis, neither of which is capable to adequately address the complexity of the issue. It is suggested that, in order to advance the Altaic hypothesis further, a "golden middle strategy" has to be worked out, and that one of the steps towards it could consist in embracing the methodology of onomasiological reconstruction, which, in addition to regularity of phonetic correspondences, places much more emphasis on the semantic and distributional properties of potential cognates and regards the etymological corpus as a systematic network rather than a collection of random individual comparanda. Although all the problematic issues and proposed solutions are discussed with examples from comparative Altaic data, they are equally relevant to most other hypotheses of long-distance relationship.

More Inebra: An unnoticed meaning of PIE √*kelH and a bit more

Alexis Manaster-Ramer — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

In this contribution I focus on a number of Indo-European (mostly Latin and Greek but also Celtic et al.) etymologies, mostly brand new, but they are intended as a demonstration of a basic difference in methodology between the dominant approach to historical linguistics (which I feel is often atomistic, formalistic, mechanistic, and perhaps above all heavily politicized and ruled by double standards). As I suggest, a different approach may lead not just to massive changes in our understanding of the traditionally recognized language groupings, but also to a new appreciation of the problem of possible deeper, more ancient groupings (such as Altaic or Nostratic). And that in two ways. One is the necessary wholesale reworking of the reconstructions of the universally recognized proto-languages (and here the semantics even more than anything else). The other is the development of a rather different methodology that would first be tested on uncontroversial language families before being let loose on those whose status has remained in limbo in some cases for more than a century.

Yukaghir-Uralic comparison: kinship and social terminology

Václav Blažek — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

This article analyzes 25 Yukaghir lexemes designating various kinship and social terms or relations, with their hypothetical cognates in the Uralic languages. Besides 6 terms, which can represent the ‘nursery’ lexicon, i.e. the ‘elementary’ relationships, the remaining 19 items are appellatives, whose semantic dispersions between Yukaghir and Uralic are fully acceptable on the one hand, but on the other hand, they more or less exclude simple adoption from one language entity into another.

Prädikative Kasus und depiktive sekundäre Prädikation in Nordeurasien – eine Vorstudie unter Berücksichtigung der Verhältnisse im Tundrajukagirischen

Florian Siegl — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

Although a number of Uralic languages, especially Finnic, Saami and Northern Samoyedic possess predicative cases which are used to encode a change of state as well as impermanent states, the existence of such cases is, of course, not a unique feature of Uralic. Similar cases are known e.g. in Yukaghir and Chukchi (and in fact, even beyond). Upon a short areal synopsis, this study covers the so called purposive case in Tundra Yukaghir in great detail and compares its function with that of Forest Enets. Although the grammaticalization history of the Tundra Yukaghir purposive and the Northern Samoyedic essive-translative case shows significant typological parallels since it arose of the grammaticalization of a converbal form of the copula, its synchronic morphosyntax differs significantly, because the Tundra Yukaghir purposive case is used as depictive, whereas the Northern Samoyedic essive-translative is compatible with both depictive and resultative readings.

(Nostratische?) Anmerkungen zur Teiledition von J. E. Fischers „Vocabularium Sibiricum“

Michael Knüppel — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

In the article, the author discusses the language comparisons in Johann Eberhard Fischer’s (10.1.1697-13.9.1771) “Vocabularium Si-biricum”. This “etymological part” of the work was edited and published by J. Gulya in 1995. An edition that received a great deal of attention – including from E. A. Helimski, who referred in passing to the Nostratic character of some of the parallels shown in Fischer’s work. In the present essay, these “equivalents” are compiled by the author in their numerical relations, following the original manuscript and based on Gulya’s partial edition.

О неидентифицированном способе выражения диминутивности в енисейских языках

Anatoly F. Zhuravlev — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The Ket word for the traditional boat and the Kott name of the small sledge can be understood as ‘child boat’ and ‘daughter sledge’, respectively. Sergey Starostin in his etymological dictionary treats the first elements of these compounds as unclear and possible as an outcome of the folk etymology. However, parallels in many genetically unrelated languages of Eurasia (Chinese, Burman, Khmer, Malay, Shugnan, Sarykol, Komi etc.) may indicate that in Yenisseyan languages we find a previously undescribed way of expressing diminutivity, which goes back to the archaical anthropomorphisation of the world.

Раритетная дисемия и языковые контакты

Aleksandr Pevnov — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

Rare disemy (and polysemy in general) like in Oroch sāgdi ‛1) old (aged); 2) big’ may be the evidence of erstwhile language contacts. In Uilta (Orok) sagǰi means ‛old (aged)’, but in Uilta compound hydronym sagǰi sū uni-ni (sagǰi sū dāji sagǰi sū) ‛Poronay river’ the meaning ‛old (aged)’ is unthinkable and the only acceptable meaning is ‛big’ (Ainu verb poro in the hydronym Poronay means ‛to be, become big, large’). Poronay is really the biggest river on Sakhalin. Thus the influence of Oroch on Uilta is in this case (and in some other ones) indubitable. The Oroch disemy (sāgdi ‛1) old (aged); 2) big’) is also the evidence of historical contacts in another area: in Negidal sagdi əni-nin does not mean ‛his or her old mother’ (Neg. sagdi ‛old (aged)’), it means ‛his or her grandmother’. In Negidal compound kinship terms the word sagdi could be used only in the sense ‛big’ (cf. grandmother, grandfather; Groβmutter, Groβvater etc.). Historical contacts of Negidal with Oroch may be illustrated by many other facts.

A Childhood Reminiscence of Bear Ceremonialism among the Northern Selkups

Olga Kazakevich — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The article is dedicated to the story of a bear feast celebrated in the Turukhan basin in the early 1960s and described half a century later, in 2014, by a participant of this ceremony who was a child by that time. As far as I know, this is the only description of a bear feast among Selkups recorded in Selkup, so its publication might be of interest.

Трикстеры-пройдохи в ненецком фольклоре

Marina Lublinskaya — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

National tradition divided Nenets folk tales into several groups according to their story-line particularities. The scientists-investigators proposed their own classifications. Stories about Trickster have not their Nenets genre-name nor they were marked as special Nenets folklor-theme by the previous researchers. But rapscallion is the main hero in several realistic folk-tales in different Nenets regions: simulator Jombo, cheat Nardaljo. We emit the first part of the tale about trickster-Hanty, that was collected and written by Anton Pyrerka in 1940 in Narjan-mar.

Хождение канинского самоедина Якушки Пирчикова самовольством в Аглинскую землю и обратно: к истории ненецко-английских контактов в I пол. XVII в.

Dmitry V. Arzyutov, Maria K. Amelina — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The present paper deals with the microhistorical, anthropological and linguistic analysis of one archival document dated 1637. Through its careful reading, we reveal the story of the Kanin Samoyed (“Samoyedin”) Yakushko Pirchikov who had to flee Arkhangelsk along with two reindeer to England by ship in 1631. Later he found himself again in Arkhangelsk where he was caught by official authorities and eventually imprisoned. The documented interrogations preserved in the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (RGADA) allowed us to reconstruct the wider context of the Nenets-Russian-English contacts in the Arkhangelsk area in the early modern times. The appendix to the article contains the full-text archival documents (photocopy) supplemented by the cursive transcript, their translation into Modern Russian and the detailed commentary.

Au cœur du chamanisme

Jean-Luc Lambert — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

This article questions the metaphysical background of Nganasan shamanism in a new way and proposes a hypothesis: would not shamanism be supported by a logic of reversal into its opposite? This logic is also familiar to us even if it is not at the heart of our own systems of thought.

Шаманские напевы нганасан вне обрядовой ситуации (по материалам записей Салира Порбина 1990 г.)

Oksana Dobzhanskaya — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

The article discusses the materials of the Nganasan shamanic folklore recorded by the author in the village of Volochanka in 1990 from the expert of musical-folklore tradition Salira Mydovich Porbin. These are the tunes of Nobobtie Ngamtusuo and Munsaku Turdagin, who were well-known shamans in Avam tundra. These materials have not yet become the subject of scientific discussion. The musicological analysis of shamanic tunes performed by S.M. Porbin shows how a change in the context of performance (the absence of a ritual situation) affects the musical and stylistic design of the shamanic chant. The contribution of E.A. Helimsky to the study of the poetics of the genres of Nganasan musical folklore (shamanic rituals, allegorical songs) is emphasized.

Zur Stellung des Matorischen innerhalb der samojedischen Sprachen

Eugen Helimski — Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0100

This is an unpublished text from the legacy of Eugen Helimski, which discusses the position of Mator inside the Samoyed branch. It shows that Mator may have had specific relations with the North Samoyedic languages, especially with Nenets and Enets, and its ties with Kamas are of thee late, areal origin.