Sapiens ubique civis

Some Notes on the Role of Mausolos in the Social War

Attila Sebők — 2025-12-20

The study of historical events and figures of the 4th century BC consistently encounters a fundamental difficulty: the lack of sources. We have scattered and debated sources even about important figures like Mausolos,1 or crucial events like the Social War,2 particularly when trying to determine the role Mausolos played in the Social War. Consequently, unresolved and controversial questions persist regarding his potential involvement as an instigator, namely as the figure who persuaded Rhodes and Chios to secede from the Second Athenian Naval Confederacy. This secession, together with that of Byzantium – and possibly Cos and other cities3 – precipitated the outbreak of the Social War. Beyond the issue of instigation, the extent of Mausolos’ influence within the conflict remains uncertain: while it is established that he provided direct support, the precise scale of his contribution and his overall significance are still matters of debate. Modern scholars have addressed this problem extensively, yet some interpretations, as will be demonstrated, have advanced claims that are at times overstated. The present study seeks to reassess these claims and to provide a more balanced evaluation.

The Language of Birth

Emma de Koning — 2025-12-20

This paper demonstrates that the images of childbirth – in different mediums – that survive from socio-religious contexts on Hellenistic Cyprus are not just valuable in the biomedical reconstruction of childbirth, but that they were used as powerful and dynamic symbols and can thus be used to access a web of ideas about the ways childbirth was approached and understood on Ancient Cyprus. To do so, it presents two case studies: the limestone figurines of Agios Photios, which connect childbirth to a diversity of concerns surrounding family, the survival of the community, and the protection of the mother and child; and the couvade ritual at Ariadne’s Tomb in Amathous, which illustrates the potential for childbirth to act as a vehicle for transformation. Together, these case studies show that childbirth existed at a point of intersection of many ideas about family, community, death, rebirth, divinity, and more.

The nescii fati of the Aeneid and their Causal Attributions

Anton Glüer — 2025-12-20

This paper examines the causal attributions employed by characters in Vergil’s Aeneid to explain their subjective misfortunes. It will be shown that these subjective explanations often disregard fate or reveal a flawed understanding of the fata, which typically leads to negative consequences for the characters involved. The article then analyzes the strategies Vergil uses to expose the shortcomings of his characters’ subjective explanations and how he characterizes them by endowing some of them with a distinctive style of attribution.

Riot Control Continuity Between the Roman Republic and the Early Roman Empire

Ondřej Trojan — 2025-12-20

This article deals with the similarities in riot control between the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. It considers the different ways of maintaining order that can be found in the sources for both periods. Specifically, it focuses on the levels of intervention (armed and unarmed) identifiable in each period and how they escalated. Another point is the attempt to maintain order by non-violent means, specifically through authority (official and imperial). An important point is the question of what role the permanent policing force played in maintaining order in the city of Rome (since the rule of Augustus), especially in the context of the transition between the Republic and the Principate. The article also notes the characteristics associated with the maintenance of order during both periods, as well as the circumstances under which the authorities decided to intervene and the methods they used. Finally, the article compares both periods and concludes what changed. It begins with general observations describing the levels of intervention, then moves on to specific examples.

Hispania and its Economy with Special Regard to the Kalendarium Vegetianum

Brigitta Izing-Gombos — 2025-12-20

The Iberian Peninsula was considered an extremely important territory for the Roman Empire in every aspect; it was a significant strategic area in terms of both natural resources and defence. By the 2nd century BC, the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior were organised in a part of the Iberian Peninsula, where they were stationed primarily for military purposes. Subsequently, the economic potential of the area was exploited. During the Augustan period, the administrative system was transformed by several reforms. The new system took into account the experiences of the past two centuries, and when establishing new territorial units, an important aspect was how to transform from a military, economic, and/or social system into a new administrative one. This paper seeks to answer the question of how the establishment of the renewed administration was related to the previous political situation, and I will examine the impact of all this on the economic exploitation of the area. In the latter case, I pay special attention to the impact of Hispania’s two main economic sectors, mining and trade, on the monetary economy of the region and the empire. When analysing the empire’s revenues, it is inevitable to examine the types of taxes and their amounts, as well as the analysis of local and long-distance economic relations, such as the examination of trading associations and monetary institutions.

Persius and Rhetoric

Rocco Davide Vacca — 2025-12-20

Rhetorical education, as is well known, represents a fundamental stage in the scholastic training of young people in the imperial age. The Latin poet Aulus Persius Flaccus (34–62 AD) certainly also devoted himself to such studies, as can be seen from his Saturae (Pers. 3, 44–47) and the Vita Persi 6, which, although presenting itself as the result of numerous interpolations and stratifications, represents the only ancient testimony so far known that can offer a complete overview of the biographical events of Persius. Starting from this brief premise, the purpose of my paper will be to attempt to advance a new proposed reading of a controversial passage from the Vita Persi placed in the section devoted to Persius’ friendships and acquaintances (Vita Persi 13), in order to investigate not only the debated relationship between Persius and recitatory practice, but also the relationship he entertained with his contemporary Marcus Anneus Lucanus (39–65 AD) during his years of scholastic training under the philosopher Lucius Anneus Cornutus (1st century AD).

The Problems with Claudius’ Missing Ascension in Seneca’s Apocolocyntosis

Benedikt Zett — 2025-12-20

Following a profoundly degrading death, the Roman emperor Claudius arrives in heaven in Seneca’s Apocolocyntosis, expecting deification like his predecessors Augustus and Tiberius. Yet after a brief consultation, the gods reject him and instead banish him to the underworld. But how did Claudius ascend to heaven in the first place? The text is completely silent on this essential part of his journey. This paper discusses and contextualises the four theories hitherto proposed, especially in light of the lacuna between chapters 7 and 8, as well as the question of whether Claudius was aware of his ascension, and further develops these ideas with original considerations.

Body, Soul and Sensation

Annalisa Coppola — 2025-12-20

The present paper proposes an unorthodox interpretation of Lucan’s Bellum Civile, with a particular focus on the Epicurean elements within the text. Adopting a multifocal approach to selected verses from the third book of Bellum Civile allows for an Epicurean reading through meticulous analysis and comparison with their models. The body and soul, understood as the inner and outer components of the human being, are analysed as constitutive of the sentient human and decisive in their impact on the concept of fearing death. The text of Lucan is given greater depth through the utilisation of Epicurean quotations. The key concepts of “body”, “soul”, and “sensation” are crucial for comprehending Lucan’s lines and interpreting them through the lens of Epicurean philosophy, with the purpose of overcoming the fear of death.

Lana Marina, id est Sea Silk

Krisztina Bránya — 2025-12-20

Among the textiles of antiquity, there are fabrics and clothing materials that are almost only described in literature, with the help of which conclusions can be drawn about the textiles used in antiquity. Yet, in the case of these clothing materials, even the exact identification often encounters obstacles due to the different names used for the textiles and the insufficiency of the surviving archaeological evidence. In my study, I intend to describe lana marina, that is, sea silk, one of the materials considered very rare and expensive in antiquity. My goal is to summarise its characteristics, the method of making sea silk, its history, and the problems surrounding its name, and also to describe its Hungarian aspects, as well as the Sea silk project, founded in 1998 with the intent of searching and preserving knowledge about sea silk and its production.

Laronia’s revenge

Gergő Gellérfi — 2025-12-20

In the course of the invective against hypocrisy in Satire 2, Laronia, the only female interlocutor in Juvenal’s corpus to deliver a longer monologue, emerges to speak. In line with the overall theme of the satire, her 26-line speech targets hypocritical, effeminate men who conceal their true sexual identity. The role of these men in Satire 2 parallels the portrayal of Roman women in Satire 6, as in both cases the narrator focuses on them while presenting a central ‘sin’ (hypocrisy and infidelity, respectively), alongside other minor transgressions (e.g., distortion of religious rites, conduct unworthy of the Roman elite). However, this does not imply that they are the sole perpetrators of these transgressions, nor that they bear exclusive responsibility for such phenomena.

Mint and Coinage Propaganda of the Rulers and Usurpers of North Africa

Monika Stříteská — 2025-12-20

This paper examines numismatic material from Roman North Africa – present-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya – from the late Republic to the Principate and Dominate periods. A sub-objective of this work is a survey of important personalities, especially emperors and usurpers from North Africa, who had coins minted with their likenesses. The overview and interpretation can therefore contribute to the study of Roman numismatics, Roman economic history and the history of North Africa in general. From the surviving finds of coins in North Africa, it is assumed that the vast majority of them was struck in Rome. However, local mints, such as those in Carthage, were also typical of the North African region.

The Adaptation of Literary Culture and Paradigms of Roman Statehood in the Transition Period of the 5th Century AD

Olivér Bene — 2025-12-20

This article seeks to emphasise the considerable degree of cultural continuity between Graeco-Roman Antiquity and the early Christian world order that emerged in the 5th century. The arrival of Christianity is often associated with Rome’s socio-political decline and the eventual downfall of the Western Roman Empire, marking the beginning of the so-called ‘Dark Ages’ of the early Middle Ages. A corresponding assumption is that pagan culture vanished along with the (pagan) Roman state. However, the surviving literary sources suggest the reverse is the case. By reevaluating familiar narratives of a rapid cultural decline, this paper intends to refute the widespread stance in academic discourse that portrays the period as a time when Roman tradition and identity were abandoned wholesale. Instead, this paper argues that Rome’s thousand-year classical heritage was adapted to the mores of Christendom, as evinced by the literature of the 5th century. The poem Satisfactio of late 5th century poet Blossius Aemilius Dracontius – a poet whose works were written in Vandal North Africa – is an exemplar of this cultural adaption. It is the primary source used throughout this paper.

A Hymn to Justinian? The Aspect of Hymn Poetry in the Ekphrasis of Hagia Sophia by Paul the Silentiary

Rupert Rainer — 2025-12-20

The Ekphrasis of Hagia Sophia, written by Paul the Silentiary in 562 AD, is known for its vivid description of Hagia Sophia. However, the Greek hexameter poem also includes panegyrics to Emperor Justinian. In v. 145–185, Justinian is praised with a hymn that resembles the Homeric Hymns. This is remarkable because the Homeric Hymns did not conform with the concept of hymns of the 6th century, which was defined by liturgical hymns. In the Ekphrasis, the contemporary concept is very present. The text frequently refers to liturgical chanting and even relates to a specific hymn. Thus, the aspect of hymn poetry in the Ekphrasis of Hagia Sophia appears very ambiguous. This paper addresses this ambiguity. It discusses how hymn poetry is involved in Paul’s Ekphrasis and asks if the contrast given by the Hymn to Justinian in v. 145–185 reflects the literary programme of the poem.

Between Paleography and Heraldry:

Maria Scotti — 2025-12-20

In this paper I focus on the Urbinas Graecus 141, one of the poetic manuscripts from the library of Federico da Montefeltro. I give a summary of the manuscript’s content and the main codicological and paleographical features, noting the presence of Angelo Vadio’s hand, a 15th-century humanist from Rimini. After carrying out a survey on the Federico’s heraldry and on the problematic aspects of dating methodologies based on the use of miniature, I focus on the coat of arms of the Urb. Gr. 141 to sheds light on the intricate history of its acquisition. For this aim, I carry out a comparison with Urb. gr. 111, which shares the same decorative pattern as Urb. gr. 141. Additionally, I also examine the miniature as a whole and consider its position within the manuscripts. Then, I extend the analysis to other Urbinates Graeci codices adorned with a coat of arms but not flanked by the letters F.C./F.D. or FE.DUX, of which Urb. gr. 111 and 141 are part. Through comparative analysis with such codices, I conclude that it is plausible to propose a ducal period acquisition for Urb. Gr. 141 and 111.

On Two Annals of the Long Turkish War

Dzsenifer Emília Bakos — 2025-12-20

The Long Turkish War proved to be the most devastating warfare in the until-then history of Hungary. Its history has been dealt with by numerous contemporary writers of Hungarian Neolatin historiography; however, the majority of their works do not have any critical edition or modern Hungarian translation. The present study focuses on two such texts. After presenting an outline of the war and the contemporary Neolatin historiography, first I will discuss some characteristics that the two texts have in common, such as the fact that the copies we have are truncated and deal with the year 1597. In the third part, I will emphasise the differences between the two texts, for example, the intentions of the authors, and the fact that in one text, the ruling dynasty is heavily criticised (with carefully chosen words) for their inefficiency against the Ottomans, while in the other, they are hardly mentioned (although this text is heavily truncated).

“I Am My Freedom”

Hysn Kafazi — 2025-12-20

Rather than a close adaptation of the myth of Orestes and Electra, Jean-Paul Sartre’s The Flies (1943) adapts the story from an existentialist standpoint. This paper first considers the significance of classical myths for existentialist writers, as well as the common critical approach to Sartre’s theatre. Instead of using Sartre’s existential bent as a critical starting point of The Flies, this paper then examines the work as an example of Sartre’s theatre of situations, utilising the myth as a simultaneously familiar and distanced subject matter. Focusing on the representation of characters in particular, the paper tracks the steps they take in reacting to the situation of the play, until they reach the point of acknowledging freedom and its consequences. Lastly, this paper interprets the final responses of Electra and Orestes as enactments of bad faith and authenticity respectively, and the inconclusive ending of the play as a formal choice that correlates with the indeterminacy of freedom.

Platonic Dramaturgy in Modernist Drama

Mozhdeh Sameti — 2025-12-20

Although Plato is usually known as an anti-theatre figure, many studies have been done on his Socratic dialogues as dramatic texts. The dramatic characteristics of Plato’s dialogues rely most on its ‘diegetic’ feature, meaning ‘narrative’, away from the ‘mimetic’ or ‘imitative’ performance. This Platonic dramaturgy was revived in modernist drama due to the resistance against realistic imitation, the prevalence of philosophical concepts, and anti-Aristotelian structures. Beckett’s Waiting for Godot is one of the best examples of this modernist ‘diegetic drama’, which realizes philosophical matters in a dialectical process, through diegetic speech-oriented text, with the least imitative action on stage. It is not that diegetic dramas do not have performance capabilities, but they have the potential to be realized only in the form of dialogues and narratives; a feature similar to Socratic dialogues. This paper seeks to discuss these features of Waiting for Godot aligned with Platonic dramaturgy.

Betwixt and Between

Soltan Jaber — 2025-12-20

This paper examines the character of Hester Swane in Marina Carr’s By the Bog of Cats (1998) as a powerful liminal representation of the intricacies of Irish identity through cultural, historical, and social transitions. Drawing on Euripides’ Medea and theoretical frameworks on liminality by Victor Turner and Michel Foucault, it investigates how Hester’s life is suspended between past and present, tradition and modernity. The analysis will follow how Hester struggles to come to terms with her mother’s abandonment, unpredictable landscapes, and social isolation and how they serve as manifestations of the broader Irish experiences. Hester’s defiance reveals that liminality is not a transition but an ongoing condition that determines her agency, identity, and fate. Finally, the paper argues that Hester’s tragic finale highlights the never-ending tension in Irish society, challenging notions of progress, belonging, and continuity of traditions.

Ancient Memories in the World of Comics

Mercédesz Stocker — 2025-12-20

The adaptation of classical texts is greatly influenced by the media today, which is why many heroes appear in different cultures and bear striking resemblances to each other: these heroes are largely from the Greco-Roman tradition. As far as literature is concerned, the great classical genres are reworked and revived by popular culture, sometimes unconsciously taking on new forms. It is indisputable that high culture in the West is inextricably linked to classical antiquity, or at least to its ideas, an era about which every age has developed certain expectations for cultural or social reasons. Given the many ways mythology can be presented, comic books are one of the more recent forms that preserve our ideas about classical antiquity. Within the comic book appearances, The Incredible Hercules stands out, with several interesting stories involving the hero transforming into a superhero while he is brought into the modern world, albeit retaining his classic form and virtuosity. This work provides an opportunity to examine the relationship between comics and mythology. Consequently, in addition to the deities and the hero, many reminiscences are recalled in the comic books, many of his exploits, along with his twelve labours. These recollections provide an opportunity to examine how classical texts are reinterpreted and applied in contemporary narratives.